Research progress and perspectives on rechargeable batteries

Energy storage plays a critical role in sustainable development, with secondary batteries serving as vital technologies for efficient energy conversion and utilization. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent advancements across various battery systems, including lithium-ion, sodium-ion, potassium-ion, and multivalent metal-ion batteries such as magnesium, zinc, calcium, and aluminum. Emerging technologies, including dual-ion, redox flow, and anion batteries, are also discussed. Particular attention is given to alkali metal rechargeable systems, such as lithium-sulfur, lithium-air, sodium-sulfur, sodium-selenium, potassium-sulfur, potassium-selenium, potassium-air, and zinc-air batteries, which have shown significant promise for high-energy applications. The optimization of key components—cathodes, anodes, electrolytes, and interfaces—is extensively analyzed, supported by advanced characterization techniques like time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS), synchrotron radiation, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and in-situ spectroscopy. Moreover, sustainable strategies for recycling spent batteries, including pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and direct recycling, are critically evaluated to mitigate environmental impacts and resource scarcity. This review not only highlights the latest technological breakthroughs but also identifies key challenges in reaction mechanisms, material design, system integration, and waste battery recycling, and presents a roadmap for advancing high-performance and sustainable battery technologies.