High dissolved oxygen exacerbates ammonia toxicity with sex-dependent manner in zebrafish

Ammonia nitrogen is one of the important environmental factors, and causes negative effects for fish health in ecosystem and aquaculture. The toxic effects and mechanisms of ammonia in fish deserve further investigation. In the present study, we exposed female and male zebrafish (Danio rerio) to ammonia (50 mg/L NH₄Cl) with oxygenated (7.5–7.8 mg/L) or non‑oxygenated (3.8–4.5 mg/L) water, to identify the combined effects of dissolved oxygen and ammonia on fish with gender difference. The results showed that oxygenated ammonia exposure increased fish mortality, gill secondary lamellas damage and gill tissue spaces, gene expressions of proinflammatory interleukin 1 beta (il-1β) and apoptotic caspase8 as compared with non‑oxygenated ammonia. Besides, oxygenated ammonia elevated plasma ammonia contents, and decreased the discharge of body ammonia through gills by depressing the enzyme activity of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. Notably, when zebrafish were subjected to ammonia stress, more severe mortality, gill damage and tissue inflammatory response were observed in males than females. This is the first study to clarify the gender-dependent impacts of ammonia toxicity, and the adverse effects of oxygenation on ammonia resistance in zebrafish.