Battery-less cardiac pacing using biomechanical energy harvesting

Achieving cardiac pacing without a battery can eliminate the medical risks associated with procedures for replacing the battery in pacemakers. In this review, we discuss the challenges in developing battery-less cardiac pacing technology based on bioenergy harvesting regarding electrical, biological, and mechanical compatibilities. The evolution of the power supply technology for cardiac pacing is reviewed. The power consumption level of cardiac pacemakers is close to the output power of implantable biomechanical energy harvesters (bio-MEHs). We discuss the static and dynamic biocompatibility of the bio-MEHs regarding the materials used for encapsulation. The mechanical compatibility between the bio-MEHs and the human body, focusing on the mechanical properties, implantable methods, and long-term material durability of the bio-MEHs, is also analyzed. Finally, we envision developing battery-less cardiac pacing technology toward partially battery-less, completely battery-less, and leadless modes.