Exploring the seasonal impact of photovoltaic roofs on urban land surface temperature under different urban spatial forms

Photovoltaic roofs (PVRs) are commonly used to reduce urban carbon emissions for improving urban sustainability. However, their potential impact on the urban thermal environment (I_PVR) remains ambiguous, varying across urban spatial forms and seasons. Based on Amsterdam's local climate zone (LCZ) map, this study aimed to employ remote sensing and geographic information system technology to evaluate the seasonal I_PVR. Correlation analysis was used to explore the relationships between urban spatial metrics and the I_PVR. The results indicated I_PVR exhibited significant variations across seasons and LCZs. The warming effect was most significant in LCZ 5 during spring and LCZ 6 in autumn, whereas the cooling effect was strongest in LCZ 5 during summer and LCZ 8 in winter. In spring and autumn, higher building density and built-up areas intensified the warming effect of PVRs in LCZ 5, LCZ 6, and LCZ 8, whereas greenspace mitigated this effect. According to I_PVR performance and the its relationship with urban spatial metrics, a cross-scale planning framework is proposed—from prioritizing city-scale implementation areas to specifying building-scale installation locations—to optimize PVR deployment and align renewable energy use with thermal environment improvement.