Attacks and countermeasures on blockchains: A survey from layering perspective

Blockchain is an emerging technology with the characteristics of decentralization and transparency and has received extensive attention and in-depth research for the past few years. With security features such as immutability and decentralization, blockchain is used to ensure the security of other applications and services. However, the security issues of the blockchain itself are always easily overlooked. In this paper, we conducted a comprehensive literature survey on the security issues of the blockchain itself. From the perspective of architectural layering, each layer of the blockchain has its own corresponding security issues. We systematically review and analyze attacks against blockchains based on the basic framework of blockchain and conduct a state-of-the-art investigation of the corresponding countermeasures against those attacks. Furthermore, we conclude our observation and point out the future direction of blockchain security issues. The purpose of this paper is to provide researchers with future development insights of blockchain security and to stimulate more efforts about blockchain security issues.